Cognitive Development
Cognitive Mediation Networks Theory
Negatives have always surrounded the uses of games; however the use of games in relation to cognitive development has become an integral component of increasing cognitive skills. Although not a traditional tool, the use of commercial video games is a growing facilitator of cognitive development (Harushiana, 2008; Rebetez, & Betrancourt, 2007).
Cognitive skills are the basic mental processing skills that are the foundation for the ability to comprehend, interpret and apply information (Carroll, 1993). Without the development of cognitive skills, it becomes a detriment for processing, retention and utilization of information.
Youth is a critical time for cognitive development. The skills that are developed during this time are crucial to growth (Thomas, & Johnson, 2008). Gaming can offer new ways to teach these skills and foster cognitive development. Positives and negatives exist for how games affect the development of children. Positive skills can be learned and focus on the reproduction of enduring behavioral patterns, such as tests of skill and strategy, competition, special rules, patterns and attention in cognitive development of children (Murray, 2006; Green, & Bavelier, 2004).
Developing Cognitive Skills
Johnson (2005) argues, that video game play develops many of the same cognitive kills that reading does. For example, it allows for the focus of attention, memory, the ability to follow narrative threads and trial and error to complete a task, while using short and long-term objectives simultaneously, which involves decision-making. Smith (2008) found that when designing a college writing course for students who lacked the requisite skills to be able to analyze complex thinking and writing structures, that video games offered a way to develop her program. She found a correlation between video game play as a means of demonstrating the breakdown of narrative threads. Video games afforded the development of cognitive skills, such as the performance of series of actions leading to trial and error decision-making. Games like books are static, so basing the design of her writing course on how games use not only narratives and descriptive modes, but also allows the player to form abstractions and conceptions, necessary cognitive skills that formed the foundation of her design (Smith, 2008).
Exercising the Mind
Gaming allows for the mind to be exercised. Many games promote critical thinking
that fosters cognitive growth. Games have a history of simply being repetitive and skill based. Technology has increased the diversity of games to include games that stress the mind. These games challenge the perception of games and can create cognitive development. There is a wide range of games for various age groups. Much as the curriculum in schools increases in difficulty as a child ages, the same can be said for games. Games can range from those directed to young children or to older adolescences creating challenges at each level. Such a game that can be used for different age children is Minecraft. It can be level specific in setting goals, such as learning repetitive skills and following directions, but also fosters complex cognitive exercises in planning, organization and critical thinking forming the basis of STEM learning.
Video Game Challenges and Cognitive Growth
Challenging a player is integral to the use in cognitive growth. Games that are designed for younger audiences are designed with a certain level of difficulty. As a child ages they will move on to harder games that offer new challenges once they have overcome the prior ones. Part of the challenge is the ability to develop the skill of computational capacity, which involves by nature deployment of the set of logical tools that enhance competence in skills such as pattern thinking, contextual thinking and multitasking (de Souza, de Lima eSilva, & Roazzi, 2010). This is a new theory of cognition called “Cognitive Mediation Networks Theory,” which combines the concepts of such cognitive theories as Piaget’s (1962) “Genetic Epistemology” and Vygostsky’s (1978) “Socio-Constructivism” into one, coherent model (de Souza, de Lima eSilva, & Roazzi, 2010, p.1565). The basis for this theory addresses the new challenges and skills that children in the Digital Age are required to develop, such as operating specific hardware, software and network components, understanding new abstract concepts like virtual world and dealing with a myriad of electronic devices and networks, all of which have become an integral part of cognitive skill development (de Souza, de Lima eSilva, & Roazzi, 2010). The use of games and gaming systems all rely on these new challenges. An example of pattern development in video gaming is Tetras, a puzzle game, which exercises the mind by developing patterns and sequences, very simplistic but crucial in learning.
Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura’s (2002), Social Cognitive Theory has become one of the most influential theory’s of learning and development. Its roots are in the traditional learning theory but Bandura believed that direct reinforcement, as in Skinner’s Behavioral Theory, is not the only way of learning.He argued that learning can also simply occur by observation of others actions. He went on to discuss the interaction of this theory with the development of emotional intelligence and self-effiicacy. Emotional Intelligence, is the development of the skill of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a person’s belief that he or she has the ability to perform a task or behavior (Bandura, 1977). Bandura (1993) further argues, the description of self-efficacy as a “people’s belief about their ability to exercise control over their own level of functioning and over events that affect their lives” (p.118). Self-efficacy is viewed as both general and domain specific (Bandura, & Locke, 2003). The development of self-efficacy is the belief in success in difficult circumstances and of the ability to overcome challenging obstacles, which is important for building confidence in children and is important for Parents and Caregivers to understand (Schwarzer, 2009; Steyn, & Mynhardt, 2008; Rutledge, 2012b).
Bandura’s (1977) three basic models of observation learning:
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A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out behavior
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A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of behavior
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A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs or online media
In this process of observational learning, there is a focus on: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation, with the latter needing reinforcement and punishment as important roles in promoting motivation.
Behavioral Theory
The Behavioral Theory as seen by B.F. Skinner, centers on learning by conditioning reinforcement and punishment. His introduction of Operant Conditioning espouses the idea that behavior needs to be reinforced, otherwise it tends to die out. This theory has been the traditional approach to the education process. Reinforcement can be both positive (reward) and negative (removing painful or negative stimulus). The theory can be complex in its execution, but has become the standard in the education process for traditional learning. Gameplay has centered on this theory with the reward and punishment during gameplay. Caregivers and Parents should realize and recognize in video game apps, when the punishment borders on violence, which even though it is a game may have far reaching effects on child development.
Social Development Theory-Constructivism vs. Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
Lev Vygotsky (1978) founded the Social Development Theory, also known as Constructivism , which is the idea that social learning happens first in the learning process, preceding development, a different view than Jean Piaget, who argues that development occurs first.. He states, in the traditional educational process, the teacher is thought to be the person with the higher level of ability and understanding, therefore, is capable of imparting knowledge and motivating the learner to succeed in the performance of a task. Skinner’s Constructivist view is that there is a role reversal, with the child becoming his own instructor, or an “active learner.” This is when the child learns by the developing of the necessary tools to accomplish the task. This is applicable in technology driven app type of games.
This social develop theory is a different approach to cognitive development. Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture shaping cognitive development, contradicting Piaget’s stage theory of development. He also views social factors as contributing to cognitive development, which he termed as the “zone of proximal development” as children and their parents or caregivers co-construct knowledge. In other words, he sees the environment as impacting how children think and what they think about. The Zone of Proximal Development is considered the most sensitive area where instruction and guidance should be given by allowing the child to develop their skills on their own or with minimal guidance as necessary. The interaction with parents or peers he found to be a way of honing skills and strategies as an active learner (McLeod, 2014). The role of language in cognitive development is emphasized, as Piaget (1959) did not acknowledge this as primary but is the result of the thought process in development. Vygotsky sees adults as an important source of cognitive development because they transmit culture and tools of intellectual adaptation, while Piaget’s view is that peers were more important in their interaction than adults ( McLeod, 2014).
The process of scaffolding is integral to Vygotsky’s theoretical approach to learning. The concept offers teacher or caregiver help initially but gradually as the child’s ability increases, the help becomes less and the child develops into an active learner and the teacher or the caregiver have less of a prominent role.
The effective way to provide for the information and retrieval for each game app is through a simple digitized format, that allows the user to be able to immediately see what is being offered by means of a toolbar. The toolbar has the following categories: Home, About, Games, Studies and Contact. About is the bio of the author; Games offers Recent games, Reviews and Tutorials; Studies encompasses Game Literacy, Literature Review, Cognitive Development, Social Development and Emotional development plus further Readings; the last is Contact, which offers the Parent or Caregiver to ask a question or make a comment to share. All the parent or caregiver has to do is to access the website and click on a selection in the tool bar. It has both video and audio.
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